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Volume Two, Reflective Practice for Teacher Change was published in the Spring 1995. The role of ‘teacher as leader and researcher‘ in Bilingual/ESL is the primary focus in each article. Co-editor Lockey Kirksey creates a unique layout and design, and guest authors and colleagues, Dr. Kip Téllez and Beti Leone offer their unique perspectives on teachers as researchers.

Volume Two is accessible in its entirety in PDF format at the conclusion of this post.

The excerpts from Volume Two are organized in this post, and divided into three sections: Section One includes the authored article “Using the Narrative Structure to Discover Our Experiences,”  (p. 44 in the PDF file) which serves as a theoretical framework to present and analyze the narratives of the five teacher interview data. Each of the teacher interviews is summarily analyzed in the article, “Reflections,” (pps.47-53); this article comprises Section Two of this post.

Section Three includes the authored article, “Leading With an Eye on the Horizon: Teacher-Leaders in Reflective Practice.” (pps.7-12 in the PDF file) This article presents an overview of the research in teacher research, emphasizing the theories and perspectives of which our teacher research collaborative is anchored.

We encourage the reader to closely notice the teachers’ interviews: their ideas, challenges, concerns, and their passion for teaching. They share so many experiences that we can learn from.

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MEET THE TEACHERS

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Using the Narrative Structure to Discover Our Experiences

The narrative approach, a teacher research method, has gained considerable attention within the reflective practice movement. Understanding teachers and fostering their capacity for self-reflection appears to be a pivotal step in formulating effective action plans aimed at enhancing the quality of education. The narrative process serves as a practical inquiry method that enables teachers to actively engage in the implementation of their own research agendas, thereby bolstering their professional roles (Richardson, 1994). It provides avenues for collaboration with fellow teachers, a strategy that frequently leads to the empowerment of teachers as they establish their own community of inquirers (Miller, 1990).

The Narrative Process as Storytelling

The narrative process encompasses comprehensive experiences, often revealing insights into past, present, and future events. Indeed, teacher narratives that describe diverse and numerous experiences frequently produce biographies, some of which can amount to substantial research projects. Research analyzing teacher narratives may also yield data that implies values, feelings, and aesthetic content (Connelly and Clandinin, 1988; Schubert and Ayers, 1992; Hollingsworth, 1992). However, the most effective research technique in the narrative process is not the accumulation of data but rather the skillful pruning and shaping of selected, significant data. For teachers, the narrative process or storytelling serves as an excellent tool for reflection, particularly when it is deliberately focused on profound insights into teaching and the educational process.

Connelly and Clandinin (1988) described the narrative process as “the reconstruction of curriculum meaning from a study of personal experience” (p. 81). Essentially, the narrative process provides teachers with the opportunity to reconstruct or rebuild an experience with the results of clarifying existing knowledge or developing new understandings. The authors elucidate this concept as follows: “It is when we ask ourselves the meaning of a story and tell it in a narrative that we reconstruct the meaning recovered in the story” (p. 81).

Over the past 15 years, research studies on teachers as teachers researchers have provided valuable insights into the utilization of teacher narratives. These studies, conducted by researchers such as Shön (1983) and Richardson (1994), have offered useful lessons for employing teacher narratives in research.

The Narrative Structure

Connelly and Clandinin (1988) have identified several key elements of a narrative structure that facilitate the interpretation and analysis of data. Table 1 succinctly outlines these elements. As in all qualitative research, the success of a research project depends on meticulous attention to the implementation procedures, data collection methods, and interpretation of results. Connelly and Clandinin (1988) offer guidance on this aspect of the research process, emphasizing the importance of focusing the interview process on the past, present, and future. Additionally, they suggest that the recovery of meaning tools should encompass a focus on the subject matter, the milieu, the learner, and the teacher, as well as the relationships between these elements. Furthermore, it is crucial for researchers to determine how teachers interpret theoretical constructs and translate theory into practice.

The research guidance provided by Connelly and Clandinin (1988) and others, has been instrumental in facilitating the implementation of our Discovering Our Experiences: Studies in Bilingual/ESL Project.

Guiding Research Questions

In our endeavors to capture the narratives of teachers, we posed several guiding questions:

1) What are the roles of teachers of language minority students within schools, and how do their relationships to one another evolve in the context of educational reform? How do these roles compare and contrast with those of other teachers? Have these roles undergone any transformations over time?

2) To what extent do trained teachers of language minority students influence decision-making at the school curriculum level, if at all, thereby impacting the overall school process?

3) How can teachers of language minority students effectively collaborate with one another to foster communities of inquiry and enhance the professionalism of the teaching profession as a whole?

Certainly, there are numerous other pertinent inquiries that could have been posed. These inquiries were intended to serve as initial prompts that facilitated the commencement of dialogues. Questions pertaining to curricular decisions, such as the timing and methodology of transferring students from their native languages to English, the strategies employed to foster language and content development, and the incorporation of cultural elements, are but a few of the numerous concerns that teachers and curriculum developers face.

The narrative approach enables us to investigate thematic inquiries that pertain to the most pressing challenges within the contemporary educational system. Additionally, it presents an opportunity to transcend the confines of schooling factors and analyze the broader ramifications of societal impact, thereby determining the nature and extent of relationships between the school, home, and society. Unlike other research methodologies that restrict our perspective on the comprehensive educational process, the narrative approach affords us the flexibility to explore a multitude of related issues and establish ongoing research agendas. Furthermore, it provides an avenue for analyzing specific programmatic areas in ways that may not be feasible or practical when employing quantitative research methodologies.

The Narrative Approach as a Reflective Tool

Perhaps the most significant aspect of the narrative approach is its utility as a reflective tool for educators. While we used interviews to develop teacher narratives, teachers can also create their own narratives and employ similar tools for systematic self-reflection on the purpose of the narrative process. As Altrichter, Posch, and Somekh (1993) explained, the purpose of the narrative process is not to define failures or even successes, but rather to help us recognize the “potential that is implicit in a situation” (p. 175). The exploratory nature of the narrative process allows teachers to assess how effectively their practice aligns with theory or even their intended goals and objectives.

However, it would be overly altruistic to assume that teachers would employ the narrative or any other practical inquiry approach in a natural, unassisted setting. This is particularly pertinent given the unreflective nature of the professional lives of teachers. Consequently, a significant objective in teacher change is to establish the necessary means to facilitate teachers in their endeavors to practice inquiry. Without the efforts of teachers, numerous questions will remain unanswered, and the attempted responses will lack the essential teacher voice that is crucial to the success of any educational program. In fact, the most significant potential contribution to the field of education, particularly in the context of educational reform, lies in the research efforts of teachers. This research is not only vital for the education of language minority students but also for the teaching profession as a whole.

Narratives of Six Teachers

The six teachers whose narratives are presented herein were selected based on our knowledge of their work in research and teaching. Two teachers were interviewed simultaneously, resulting in a total of five narratives. Each narrative has a distinct focus based on the circumstances of each teacher’s work. Four of the narratives are by teachers in elementary education, while one by the two teachers interviewed simultaneously focuses on a secondary school. The following procedure was used for each narrative:

1. Recorded interview: Each interview varied in length, with the longest lasting 90 minutes and the shortest 50 minutes.

2. Transcription: Each interview was transcribed.

3. Editing: The transcripts were edited for narrative smoothness.

4. Feedback: The edited transcripts were sent to each teacher for feedback.

5. Final draft: The final drafts were edited for publication.

The narrative process serves as an appropriate and valuable tool in our endeavors to gain a deeper understanding of the intricate and occasionally chaotic nature inherent in the education of language minority students. The teacher narratives presented in this volume represent pivotal steps in the process of addressing critical issues and challenges in teaching and curriculum development. By doing so, we can at the very least ensure that a coherent plan for resolving problems and enhancing our programs is strategically targeted on the following pages. Each teacher interview is carefully analyzed using the narrative structure approach.

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TABLE 1: The Language for Narrative Structures (Connelly & Clandinin, 1988)

1. Personal Philosophy	Explanations and interpretations of one’s beliefs and values as related to teaching.
2. Image	Manifestation of one’s past that is significantly expressed and enacted in the teaching behavior or role. (We also used “images” to describe current patterns of behavior.)
3. Metaphor	The all-encompassing experience which the teacher most closely relates to the teaching event and is reflective of a teacher’s conceptual system.
4. Rule	Clear statement derived from practice and used to drive the curriculum at certain strategic points.
5. Practical Principle	A rule of thumb at a higher and broader level than a rule that can be interpreted as a teacher’s purposes for teaching within a curricular context.
6. Narrative Unity	The overriding sum of all of our experiences through time and space, expressed in narrative form as thematic threads.
7. Rhythm	Teachers’ ways of making curricular decisions based on time or cyclical factors.

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REFLECTIONS

Laura: Creative Professionalism

Personal Philosophy

Laura’s understanding of the bilingual process and her concern for the linguistic and cultural needs of her students are partially rooted in her own experiences growing up bilingually. Spanish was the dominant language at home, while English was the dominant language at school. Her personal philosophy centers around developing a balanced curriculum that considers the short-term and long-term effects of schooling on her bilingual students. She draws upon her personal experiences as well as her professionalism as a practicing teacher and teacher-researcher to make critical decisions regarding the curriculum and her relationships with colleagues and principals.

Metaphor

Laura is aware of the political climate within the school. She employs the metaphor of a society to describe the function of the school and the inevitable consequences that students face due to the perceived negative views of the majority members. She clearly acknowledges the role of the school as a comprehensive entity that impacts on her students as it does on all students.

Of course, all bilingual and ESL programs should not be identical because all children are not identical and all school cultures are not identical. You must consider the entire school environment. What we should do is identify the most effective methods, whether they are ESL, bilingual, regular, or special education, to meet the needs of all students.

Practical Principle

Laura emphasizes the importance of tailoring bilingual and ESL programs to meet the diverse needs of students. She asserts that no single program can be universally applicable, as each child and school culture is unique. Instead, she advocates for a comprehensive approach that considers the entire school environment and identifies the most effective methods to address the specific needs of each student.

A practical principle that Laura clearly adheres to is incorporated in her bilingual education program, namely that children whose dominant language is Spanish should receive adequate instruction in their native language. The fact that her principal opposed her strong native language instruction prompted Laura to reconsider her ideas and beliefs. Nevertheless, she remained resolute in the integrity of her convictions and agreed to modify her curriculum to appear as if she was implementing an ESL program rather than a bilingual education. It appears that Laura is assertive in her willingness to actively engage within this political context.

Rhythm

Rhythm plays a significant role in Laura’s decision-making process. She is accountable for the academic progress of her students for the entire academic year. Consequently, she is obligated to provide them with the necessary preparation within that timeframe to ensure their successful functioning in subsequent academic years. One role that Laura assumes is that of a critical teacher, a Freirean term referring to her function as a problem-poser who poses thought-provoking questions. She poses questions on two levels: first, to determine how to tailor the curriculum to meet the needs of her students, and secondly, how to assist her students in becoming more self-conscious of their roles as language learners within a specific cultural, social, and educational environment. Laura also considers the broader school context, particularly in relation to the bilingual students in other classrooms. The definition of knowing as described in Freirean terms is also applicable to the knowledge that Laura possesses. Knowing is associated with learning that is active, a process that enlightens all who are meaningfully involved. Laura’s relentless pursuit of knowledge and her unwavering commitment to problem-solving propelled her into a transformative process that culminated in the development of specialized teaching strategies and methods aimed at influencing her colleagues and principal. The advice Laura provides to teachers underscores her role as a critical thinker:

If I were to offer advice to a new teacher, I would emphasize the importance of maintaining unwavering commitment to the specific language needs of minority children, even in the face of policies that may inadvertently hinder their progress.

Discussion Questions:

In a high-resistance school environment, how would you approach the following challenges:

a) Convincing your principal and colleagues of the fundamental principles underlying bilingual education?

b) Modifying hostile policies to foster greater sensitivity and understanding towards the needs of second-language learners?

Maryann: A Family of Learners

Several striking features are evident in Maryann’s narrative. One notable aspect is the recurring imagery of children her students, which she describes in numerous positive terms. She envisions her students as “proud of themselves, have improved their self-esteem; are able to own their own learning; are decision-makers and problem solvers; have excelled in leadership roles and responsibilities; love to come to school; develop respect for one another; are proud of their culture; have positive self-image; and engage socially with other children.” Maryann likely holds such positive views toward her students, the majority of whom are Latino and second language learners, regardless of the educational program she has created and nurtured. However, she presents a compelling argument in favor of multi-age grouping by elucidating its advantages for her students in the domains of cognitive, affective, and linguistic development. Her arguments are persuasive due to her comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the challenges associated with educating language minority students. Her involvement in the development of curriculum for use in multi-age classrooms has afforded her the opportunity to examine the educational program in novel ways, exploring alternative approaches to achieving academic objectives.

Consequently, her curricular model is comprehensive in scope. She approaches problem-solving by diligently gathering information about her students, both within and outside of the school environment. She recognizes the benefits of parental involvement in schools and makes a concerted effort to maintain regular communication with her parents, even in challenging circumstances. Multi-age grouping enables Maryann to utilize a flexible, customized curriculum that is not readily available in a more conventional structure.

Metaphor

Maryann openly expresses her enthusiasm and affection for Hispanic or Latino culture, language, and society. These sentiments may partially explain her use of the metaphor of a family to describe her educational program. The extended family concept, prevalent among families, emphasizes love, respect, and teamwork. These attributes align with the principles Maryann incorporates into her program.

Personal Philosophy

Maryann does not explicitly articulate her personal philosophy. However, it is evident that her philosophy centers on the imperative of significantly enhancing child-centered, culturally-responsive educational programs. She emphasizes the importance of leveraging the strengths of her students, preparing them for the future, and ultimately providing them with successful experiences. It necessitates mindfulness to discern her professional philosophy from her personal philosophy, as they seem to be intertwined.

Image

Maryann envisions herself as both a leader and a teacher. She describes herself as a facilitator who provides genuine, meticulously planned activities within a nurturing environment, enabling students to learn independently as much as possible. She is dedicated to assisting her colleagues in recognizing the value of multi-age grouping and offers various forms of support, as exemplified in her role in developing the curriculum training guide. Maryann is an active participant and an innovation leader who assumes her teaching responsibilities by being well-informed, well-prepared, and committed to her profession. The teaching profession is fortunate to have such a caring and dedicated professional like Maryann.

Discussion Questions:

If multi-age grouping is deemed appropriate and advantageous for language minority students, why has it not been more extensively implemented? If you were presented with the opportunity to implement multi-age grouping in your classroom, what strategies would you employ?

Diana: Actions With Purpose

Personal Philosophy and Experiential Images

Diana’s educational philosophy is grounded in her extensive expertise in bilingual education. Her practical and personal experiences have significantly shaped her teaching philosophy, incorporating the concepts of image as articulated by Connelly and Clandinin (1988). These encompass her childhood experiences and recent firsthand encounters, which equip her with the ability to observe, analyze, and make critical decisions. Motivated by her innate curiosity, her interest in problem-solving eventually evolved into a teacher-researcher role. She likened her classroom to a laboratory, where she poses research questions and investigates them ethically, prioritizing the well-being of her students. The outcomes of her research significantly enhance her instruction, benefiting both her students and herself. Like a true investigator, Diana approaches her subjects from various perspectives, seeking the truth.

Daina’s Principles and Rules

Diana’s innate teaching expertise and research capabilities have yielded valuable information that benefits educators in two distinct ways. Firstly, the information provides lessons learned, derived from meticulous analysis and observation of actual classroom experiences. Secondly, it is teacher-directed, rendering it applicable and pertinent to other bilingual education and ESL teachers’ practical principles.

Diana has outlined several principles and rules for effective bilingual education and ESL programs.

Practical Principle #1: Collaboration with mainstream teachers is crucial for achieving significant second language learning and academic goals. This involves collaborative planning, scheduling, and team teaching. Diana’s research shows that participating students in both mainstream and bilingual education benefit immensely, which cannot be achieved in a self-contained classroom. This principle has far-reaching implications for all stakeholders, including practitioners and policymakers. Diana’s research has enlightened us all, highlighting the importance of her work and the role of teacher research in general.

Rule #1: Teachers should incorporate cooperative learning techniques to promote authentic language use and ensure linguistic balance within student groups. They should also make provisions to provide second language learners with equal or comparable opportunities to use language optimally, considering individual personality factors and creating comfortable learning environments.

Practical Principle #2: Students in bilingual education programs should continue as long as they benefit from instruction in both languages. Inter-mainstreamed programs should gradually transition students to mainstream education.

Rule #2: The acquisition of English as a second language is a transformative process that requires a supportive environment where children can make personal choices regarding language use without being compelled to speak English.

Rule #3: The strength of a language minority child lies in their native language and culture.

Rule #4: By establishing collaborative partnerships between bilingual education students and regular teachers, the complete mainstreaming of bilingual education students can be effectively postponed, without the need to exit the bilingual education program. This approach enables students to gradually transition into regular programs.

Practical Principle #3: The entire school must take full responsibility for educating second language learners, not just bilingual education teachers.

Rule #5: Regular classroom teachers should be sensitive and knowledgeable about language minority students, as their perceptions of academic abilities can be significantly affected.

Rule #6: Principals are essential for ensuring that all teachers have the knowledge and skills to work with language minority students and facilitate collaboration among them. This helps prevent the isolation that many bilingual education teachers experience. The role of teacher researcher has provided Diana, an intelligent, caring, and dedicated teacher, with an opportunity to use all of her resources to solve very complex problems and, in the process, has become empowered with a sense of profound understanding and confidence.

Diana’s narrative elucidates her approach to managing her teacher-researcher role, which facilitated her professional development through the systematic process of observation, data collection, and documentation. Her experiences underscore the significance of a teacher’s perspective and emphasize the importance of actively listening to such insights. By doing so, we gain a deeper understanding of the intricate process of educating linguistically diverse children.

Discussion Questions:

Do you concur with Diana’s assertion that a high-quality bilingual education program necessitates the active participation of the entire school community? Please provide a detailed explanation to support your position.

Mark: Committed to Making a Difference

Personal Philosophy

Mark’s unwavering commitment to creating, developing, and implementing innovative educational programs for language minority students is grounded in a personal philosophy of positive thinking, perseverance, and inclusivity. His first major decision to meticulously revamp the traditional curriculum, tailored to meet the unique needs of language minority students was a huge success. The learner-centered approach that guided his work led him to the implementation of his school’s inaugural and sole newcomer program for fifth and sixth graders. The program offered students a personalized learning experience and fostered collaboration among teachers. Mark’s leadership qualities are evident in the program’s creative resourcefulness and innovation in problem-solving, and in insuring that the program maintains a well-grounded, student-centered philosophical base.

Image

The images that emerge in Mark’s narrative are those of students who are successful, self-confident and exhibit autonomy and resourcefulness in regard to their educational pursuits. He addresses the common perception of students as academically unsuccessful by offering numerous strategies and activities that empower and resource them.

Practical Principles

Mark believes in the relevance of a purposeful, meaningful curriculum for second language learners, and the fact that his students have achieved considerable academic achievement confirms that belief. A practical principle that he closely adheres to emphasizes providing students with practical, lifelong experiences that ultimately contribute to their success as independent learners.

Metaphor

Mark envisions his classroom without walls. He recognizes that the educational needs of his second language learners are more extensive than what can be accomplished by a traditional curriculum. He considers the value of the larger community in a curriculum designed primarily to help students develop understandings, find purpose, and identify themselves as members of the community.

Mark found his way into a teaching profession by an indirect route. Even so, his determination to provide equal educational opportunities, coupled with his knowledge of educational theory and practice, and his personal and moral beliefs as an educator, suggest a deliberate path to a professional educator career. Mark upholds high standards and ideals for his students and himself. He’s a model teacher who demonstrates creativity, understanding, self-initiative, and excellence.

Suzanne & Richard: Creating a Risk-Free Community

Suzanne and Richard’s missionary spirit is evident in their unwavering commitment to providing the most exceptional educational programs for language minority students at their alternative school. Each brings their unique personal philosophy to the school, shaped by their personal experiences and professional aspirations. Richard’s involvement with immigrant families shortly after completing his stint in the Navy profoundly influenced his philosophy. Even his early teaching experiences, which initially lacked the impact he sought, ultimately contributed to his current philosophy. Suzanne’s passion for teaching blossomed early in life, and the challenge of working with the target population fuels her intellectual growth and motivation.

Metaphor

Suzanne and Richard’s personal worlds converge in a shared vision for their school. This vision centers around building and nurturing a learning community where success is paramount, even in the face of potential failure. Susanne emphasizes this by stating, “Our students are underestimated in traditional forms of education, and we’re here to show what our kids know, not what they don’t know.” Richard envisions the school as “a refuge of support and advocacy for the immigrant community.” He possesses a comprehensive understanding of both traditional and non-traditional educational practices, a solid grasp of the recent research on teaching language minority students, and a willingness to embrace risk-taking. However, they acknowledge that building a community of learners is a collaborative endeavor. Their greatest challenge lies in inspiring others to explore diverse avenues for meeting the unique needs of their student population.

Image

The images that repeatedly appear in their narrative reflect their determined desire to create meaningful ways for students to succeed both in the short term and the long term. Their teaching philosophy is firmly rooted in a learner-centered approach. One of the strengths of their curriculum is their deliberate efforts to get to know their students well and involve the school community, especially their parents, in the decision-making process. This whole-school concept significantly impacts the roles of parents and teachers, effectively engaging them in unprecedented ways. Suzanne and Richard employed the strategy of empowering stakeholders as a proactive mechanism to ensure that students have the best possible opportunities for success. The curriculum they described includes several practical principles and rules. The six principles outlined here emphasize the whole-school concept and the importance of building a community of learners.

Practical Principles

Practical Principle #1: Establish a collaborative school community environment.

This principle is based on the notion that when stakeholders actively participate in the planning and implementation of an educational program, a collaborative spirit naturally emerges. Everyone contributes to the development of a school mission, and decision-making becomes a shared process. Techniques such as focus groups and the Advisory Council are effective ways to achieve this. Additionally, the role of a teacher as a curriculum planner is crucial. Teachers possess remarkable flexibility and responsibility in shaping the curriculum.

Practical Principle #2: Align instruction and assessment with the curriculum and tailor it to the specific needs of the student.

As part of determining instruction and assessment, three groups of students are identified based on factors such as language proficiency and academic record. These groups are used to create different types of assignments, including preliterate and regular classroom assignments, which are tailored to the students’ math and language abilities. Additionally, students who enroll at non-standard times of the year are placed in a late arrivals classroom.

Curriculum planners, including teachers, engage in thoughtful discussions to address various questions. These questions include what the school should look like, how to prioritize content, what students should be able to achieve based on their language proficiency, what students need to do to succeed as second language learners, and how to assess students’ strengths and weaknesses. Teachers also consider how to provide students with opportunities to demonstrate their knowledge in ways other than through language.

Addressing these challenging questions and closely aligning instruction with assessment are two of the main principles underlying the school’s philosophy. In this school, innovation appears to be the norm rather than the exception.

Practical Principle #3:  Provide native language instruction where appropriate.

This principle is clearly pronounced in Richard’s statement: “We firmly believe that if you cannot read and write in your first language, there is no way in a second language. You need the basis of your first language to make transference into a second language.”

Practical Principle #4: Develop a supportive learning environment for students.

Throughout their narrative, Suzanne and Richard outline various activities and strategies that facilitate students’ integration into the school community. These include culture week, which recognizes and celebrates students’ diverse cultures; non-graded curricular activities; active parental involvement; and individualized tutoring. Furthermore, each classroom fosters a risk-free environment, encouraging students to actively engage in the learning process. Recognizing and empowering students as learners and new members of society is a fundamental aspect of the school’s goals and philosophy.

Practical Principle #5: Create meaningful experiences that promote lifelong learning.

As a learner-centered school, the learning activities are based on relevance and building on what students already know. Suzanne states it this way: “We are looking at how they construct the information and make meaning out of it as opposed to how they produce or regurgitate a list of facts. We are looking at both process and product.” A meaningful curriculum is dependent on the extent to which the curriculum matches the students’ self-perceived and actual needs. Another statement from Suzanne stresses this point: “We want the school to meet the needs of our clients, not the other way around. We want to have a setup where kids come in and run a newspaper or a card shop; they produce products, sell them from their own banking system, and have a community within the school so they get hands-on experience.” As part of their plan, the development of an integrated curriculum can facilitate student learning in meaningful, constructive, and relevant ways.

Practical Principles #6: Create opportunities for ongoing professional development for teachers.

Two important roles in which teachers function, i.e., teacher as learner and teacher as curriculum planner, serve to facilitate teachers in their work and in their professional development. The alternative teacher assessment project, which the school is piloting, involves teachers in learner roles, which could also be interpreted as teachers as researchers. Teachers select a small, manageable number of students and explore the use of certain innovative techniques and activities, assessing their usefulness and effectiveness. Two of these include monitoring and assessing students using the portfolio approach and the student review, which involves teachers closely examining and analyzing one student at a time with the idea of learning how to better help students in general. The results benefit both teachers and students, and as Suzanne puts it, “we want more time to focus on kids. We have each of the teachers share what they know about the student, and we put our heads together to see what we can do to help the students have more successful experience here.”

By playing a key role in developing curriculum, teachers gain insights on how best to help students achieve objectives which they have carefully planned. Planning curriculum and conducting student reviews are part of a learning process as long as the teachers are guided and supported well. The guidance and support is evident in the fact that teachers are provided with release time for these and other self-development activities such as peer coaching opportunities.

Teachers are cognizant of the challenges they will face at the outset of their teaching assignments. Careful selection of the teaching staff is perhaps one of the best advantages of starting a new program. The screening and hiring practices are designed to allow teacher candidates to self-select. Unfortunately, it is one of the few advantages. Suzanne and Richard are well aware of the long road ahead of them. Susanne stresses this point in her statement: “We can’t sit back and say, ‘Well, I want this, and I think the school ought to be like this. We’re the ones responsible for making it the way we want, but it will require time.” Considering their commitment, determination, and a solid, genuine philosophy; time is definitely on their side.

Discussion Question:

Respond to a criticism that a newcomer school serves to segregate students and subsequently contribute to their educational failure.

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TABLE 2: Practical Principles Summary

Teacher as Critical Thinker LAURA	1. A school’s governance that is unresponsive to the needs of language minority students must be challenged. 2. We must recognize that teaching children whose dominant language is Spanish in their native language is a sound educational practice.
Teacher as Action Researcher DIANA	1. Collaboration with mainstream teachers is necessary to achieve important second language learning and academic goals. 2. Students need to continue in the program as long as they benefit from instruction in both languages, and enter mainstreamed programs gradually. 3. The entire school must take full responsibility to educate second language learners, and not overly burden bilingual education teachers.
Teacher as Innovation Leader MARYANN	1. Creative, innovative curriculum planning should consider the whole student- his culture, language, home and family experiences, prior knowledge. 2. Learning occurs in an environment that is non-threatening and in which learning tasks are adapted to the individual needs of the child.
Teacher as Innovation Leader MARK	1. A program must be adapted to fit the needs of the student, not the other way around. 2. It is necessary to provide meaningful experiences that help students achieve success.
Teacher as Innovation Leader SUZANNE & RICHARD	1. Establish a collaborative school community environment. 2. Align instruction and assessment with curriculum and tailor it to the specific needs of the student. 3. Provide native language instruction where appropriate. 4. Develop a supportive learning environment for students. 5. Create meaningful experiences that promote lifelong learning. 6. Create opportunities for ongoing staff development.

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What does it mean to be a teacher in today’s multicultural, multilingual society? The current demands confronting our schools are markedly different from the past and seem to continually change in ways in which schools are unprepared to address. Take, for instance, a list of concerns that students, parents, and teachers have today compared to 20 or 30 years ago. Who would have imagined back then that such things as gun control or drug trafficking would even be in a remote sense connected to our schools. The sacred institutions upon which our society has relied to engender our most valued ideals in our children seem to perplex even the most loyal observer.

The changing demography of our country provides an instant index for determining how rapidly the curriculum must be revamped to make it more responsive and inclusive. Urban schools in large metropolitan areas are enrolling more minority students than non-minority students. Many of these schools already have the so-called “minority students” as the majority. This contrasts with the low numbers of teachers who are members of the minority groups represented by the students, and whose numbers are increasing very slowly.

According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2024), there are currently at least 5.3 million children in the nation that are considered native speakers of another language other than English, or 10.6%  of U.S. public school student population. (See Waggoner, 1994, for a different perspective).* It’s clear that students’ needs extend well beyond what schools have traditionally addressed. Indeed, the paths towards teaching and learning have expanded in depth and breadth to include more socioeconomic, cultural, cultural, and linguistic factors.

The most significant transformations, however, lie in the evolution of teachers’ roles. What are these roles, and what implications do they hold for schools and teacher training institutions in facilitating this transformation? It is crucial that we address these questions in our research, particularly how to provide support to teachers as they lead the reformation of the teaching profession through effective educational reform.

Teacher Research Methodology

Leading teacher researchers have used qualitative methods that have served to close the gap between research and practice and, simultaneously, yield new knowledge about teaching in varying contexts. Ethnographic studies have allowed us to peer through classroom windows in a variety of contexts, providing a firsthand learning laboratory. Because of these studies, we have a better understanding and appreciation of the roles and work of teachers. Most importantly, the acceptance of qualitative methods by leading researchers has encouraged more teachers to pursue research activity, even to the point that it has become a natural part of their teaching responsibilities. There are several kinds of research studies that follow qualitative methodology worth mentioning that can be used as models of current teacher research. These are discussed in the following section under the headings of reflective practice, narrative structures, collaborative conversational method, and practical inquiry.

Reflective Practice

John Dewey’s book (1902/1990) on student-centeredness in education spawned the idea of teacher training being accomplished through staff development. In specific studies, the concept of deliberative reflection points to reflection that is directed to practice. Schön’s (1983) work underscores the importance of solving problems within a practical context using a systematic process. The reflective practitioner is the teacher as researcher, so-called because of the nature of the methods and specificity of the problem researchers are focusing on.

Collaborative efforts between researchers, teacher educators, and teachers to facilitate teacher change are highlighted by Hannah Bissinger, Hatton, and Mahoney (1980-1994). Collaboration is often defined in specific terms, such as “shared inquiry” as described in Students Teaching, Teachers Learning (Branscomb, Goswami, and Schwartz, 1992). The success of collaboration observed, thus far, is evidence of the need to nurture working relationships, and that the change process must involve teachers in an active role, that first and foremost, leads to their empowerment. Reflective practice is an integral part of the process of teacher empowerment, and meaningful collaboration is one of the most successful means by which to facilitate this process.

Narrative Structures

The transformation of teachers’ experiences into narrative structures is evident in several studies. Connelly and Clandinin (1998) transform teachers’ insightful reflections on their teaching practices into relevant story forms. Teacher Lore (Ayers and Schubert, 1992), an honest and inspiring book about teacher experiences, describes a journey of reflection and retrospection and serves as a noteworthy model of the use of narrative structures. A powerful yet subtle message conveyed through the storytelling style invites the reader to explore, examine, and reflect upon the personal, social, and political ramifications of teaching.

Collaborative Conversational Method

One study that uniquely exemplifies the collaborative conversational method was reported by Hollingsworth (1992). The focus of her study of teachers and researchers was clearly based on a feminist perspective, yet the implications she draws can be applied to a wider audience. She writes, “instead of simply validating or uncovering scientific truths about mainstream cultures, feminist research asks questions that lead to social change in oppressed conditions, usually, those of women, but that can also apply to men and children in underpowered life roles” (p.376).

The power of dialogue in the empowering process described by Hollingsworth, then, leads to action that reflects a deepening of once-perspective of social reality. It is important to note that Hollingsworth’s collaborative conversational process emphasizes empowerment as a two-way street by which the researcher and the teacher are mutually transformed.

Practical inquiry

Richardson (1994) describes several approaches to teacher research categorized as practical inquiry. These include three conceptions of teacher research: a) that teaching is research because the teacher works like a researcher from conceptualizing the problem, collecting the data, and using it to resolve the problem; b) that the teacher is a reflective practitioner; and c) that the teacher is an action researcher. Teachers, alone or in collaborative relationships, engage in practical inquiry to answer or address local questions that demand immediate attention and for which they are in the best position to respond. The results are not always useful for all teachers outside this specific context to use; however, regardless of the outcome, the results always satisfy the inquisitive mind. Practical inquiry is appropriately used on a daily basis using informal techniques yet producing results that serve immediate purposes.

Practical inquiry can be formalized by comparing similarities and differences among several studies and incorporating structured empirical techniques. The assumption that research can adequately yield sound and useful results using comparisons within a structured empirical framework has been discussed for decades under the topic of grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). However, formal research cannot replace the immediate and relevant research initiated by teacher researchers in practical inquiry. Both forms of research are obviously appropriate but for different reasons.

The Changing Roles of Teachers in Research

The qualitative research methods employed in the Discovering Our Experiences project yielded the identification of pivotal roles assumed by bilingual ESL teachers within diverse classroom settings. This volume highlights three distinct roles: the critical thinker, the innovation leader, and the action researcher.

1.  Teacher as Critical Thinker. As a critical thinker, a teacher who works with second language learners creates a classroom that serves as a microcosm reflecting the social, political, and economic realities of the larger society. According to Ira Shor, a Freirean education scholar, the teacher’s role as a critical thinker is to challenge the inequality and injustices prevalent in society. Consequently, teachers facilitate reflection on life experiences, pose thought-provoking questions, present problems, and assist students in determining solutions.

Teaching critically establishes a reciprocal relationship between the teacher and students. Through dialogue, the teacher encourages students to engage in thoughtful consideration of problems, issues, and concerns, leading to a deeper comprehension of these concepts. This transformative process enables students to transition from acquiring new knowledge to formulating a plan that translates knowledge into action. As a result of this process, both the teacher and students undergo transformation, gaining a deeper understanding of each other and their perception of reality. Ultimately, both the teacher and students strive towards critical consciousness, which, according to Freire, represents the “highest development of thought and action” (p. 32).

At a deeper level, the teacher, as a critical thinker, acknowledges the shortcomings of employing the conventional curriculum for her or his students. A curriculum that deliberately disregards and overlooks the cultural and linguistic diversity of the students effectively imposes a set of dominant standards and values that encourage students to perceive their differences as deficiencies and to solely attribute their failures to themselves. The role of the teacher as a critical thinker is intrinsically linked to the Freudian concept of education as politics. Ira Shor (1993) succinctly encapsulates Freire’s ideas: “Education is politics because it is one place where individuals and society are constructed. Since human beings and their society are developed in one direction or another through education, the learning process cannot avoid being politics.” (p. 28)

The four qualities of critical consciousness interpreted by Shor (1993), characterize the qualities among teachers as critical thinkers described in the Discovering Our Experiences Project: power awareness, critical literacy, desocialization, and self-education.   

1) Power awareness is crucial for teachers. They must understand how power is distributed, exercised, and used. This knowledge is essential for evaluating the curriculum and finding effective ways to engage students in transformative learning.

2) Critical literacy involves a teacher’s ability to delve beneath surface impressions, comprehend social contexts and their implications, and uncover profound meanings of events, particularly those relevant to their own context.

3) Desocialization occurs when a teacher, as a critical thinker, recognizes and challenges the learned content in mass culture, particularly regressive values like racism, sexism, and class bias..

4) Self-education empowers teachers to transform both their schools and society. By taking initiative, they distance themselves from the authoritarian impositions of rigid standards and the unequal distribution of power.

The ideas and words of Paulo Freire (1970; 1973) are more relevant today than ever before as we continue our work with language minority students. Indeed, the role of the teacher as critical thinker is important in transforming the educational system to one that is more responsive to the needs of our students,

2.  Teacher as innovation leader. Teachers who work with language minority students frequently encounter programmatic changes as a result of reform initiatives. While this experience can be stressful and overwhelming in some instances, it is evident that the teachers who emerge as leaders in the midst of change possess the necessary knowledge, understanding, and commitment to participate successfully in the transformative process.

Risk-taking is crucial in overcoming the challenges of transcending cultural and linguistic barriers. Additionally, vision is paramount, particularly in envisioning the changes that teachers will play in the educational landscape. Without vision and a willingness to take risks, teachers may find it challenging to establish new roles or develop program models of change that align with educational reform efforts.

3. Teachers as action researchers. Teachers of language minority students in bilingual education or ESL, encounter numerous unanswered questions concerning classroom management, curricular materials, and instructional techniques. The availability of solutions is not always immediate or comprehensive. Even when solutions are identified, their appropriateness may vary across different classrooms. Teachers possess the most suitable position to conduct research due to their deep understanding of the challenges and their natural classroom environment, to pursue their inquiries. Collaborative efforts yield the most productive outcomes. This is particularly important for teachers who intend to incorporate research into their teaching, as advocated by proponents of the teacher as researcher model..

The roles that we have identified as evolving within the context of educational reform are not definitive. The crucial element inherent in these roles is teacher change and how this change aligns with contextual issues in the process of identifying these roles. As we continue to facilitate teacher change, the following principles guide our efforts:

1) The role of teacher as researcher is crucial in implementing the necessary changes to enhance educational programs for language minority students. Recognizing this need and facilitating teacher change should be a top priority for professional staff developers.

2) University-level teacher educators must lead the transformation of teacher training programs and adapt to the changes necessitated by their new roles.

3) Teaching is a transformative process. Teachers are most successful when they engage in a two-way process of shared learning that profoundly impacts both the teacher and the students.

4) There’s a need to educate all stakeholders, especially policymakers, who are often removed from the specific needs of students and teachers. These policymakers need to understand how rules and policies impact the daily lives of those who are most affected.

5) Current research in education fails to include the voices of teachers and other practitioners who work with language minority students. National-level reform efforts have been criticized for being shortsighted due to the lack of input from all relevant stakeholders (Borman and Greenman, 1994). Therefore, it is crucial to prioritize efforts in integrating teacher research specifically focused on the education of language minority students into mainstream teacher education research.

Conclusion

To effectively support language minority students, teachers must undergo professional development that addresses their unique needs. This requires comprehensive changes at both the school district and university levels. Structural modifications must be implemented to provide the necessary support and services to achieve training objectives. Key areas of proposed changes include teacher training designs and content, as well as the role of teachers as teacher researchers.

Training Program Structures

Training designs and activities must align with the evolving roles of teachers and their students’ needs. Consequently, schools, colleges, and universities, as well as mentors, peer coaches, resource consultants, and other relevant stakeholders, must establish collaborative relationships that effectively utilize resources and provide training that is focused, relevant, and timely. Training or staff development should be regarded as an integral component of the overall school program, with an ongoing system for identifying training needs, determining activities, and conducting field experiences, including mentorships. University training at the pre-service level can make the most significant contributions to teacher change, provided the programs adhere strictly to a balance of research and practice. This can only be achieved through collaborative relationships with schools, in addition to performance-based designs that utilize portfolio systems and comprehensive, high-quality programs.

Training Content

Both university and school district training programs must provide training that is not only site-based but contextual or specific to the individual needs of the students. The goals of the training programs should be aligned with the school culture and, in fact, should serve to nurture that culture.

Current research studies have provided staff development practitioners with insights into effective strategies and techniques for designing and implementing teacher change. Among the major points discussed in the literature (Briscoe and Peters 1994) are: 1) the need to change teachers’ fundamental beliefs and ideas about curriculum content and teaching strategies; 2) the need to consider how the change will affect teachers on a personal level; and 3) the need for individual and group opportunities for teachers to engage in reflective dialogue, particularly about the change process. Unless we consider these important factors, we may not effectively target the training program.

Teacher Leaders are Teacher Researchers

The historical struggle to elevate the professional status of teachers has been a challenging endeavor (Apple, 1994). Professionalism in education necessitates that teachers possess extensive knowledge and expertise in their respective fields. By integrating research activities into their teaching practices, teachers can fulfill a crucial objective as professional educators. The establishment of support systems to facilitate teachers in this endeavor is of paramount importance.

Teacher leaders who aspire to bring about change within their workplaces encounter a multitude of challenges. The establishment of networks to assist teachers in their endeavors should be a primary objective for all stakeholders. We must persist in our efforts to create pathways for present and future teacher leaders whose vision holds the potential to be the greatest hope for our children.

*This data is the most recent from the National Center of Education.

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Branscombe, N., Goswami, D., & Schwartz, J. (1992). Students teaching, teachers learning. Cook Heinemann.

Briscoe, C., & Peters, J. (1994, April). Collaborating for change: A case study of one community of teachers. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

Connelly, F., & Clandinin, D. (1988). Teachers as curriculum planners. Teachers College Press.

Dewey, J. (1902/1990). The child and the curriculum. University of Chicago Press.

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Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Aldine De Gruyter.

Hannay, L., Bissegger, M., Hason, M., & Mahony, M. (1994, April). Facilitating deliberation: A system approach. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

Hollingsworth, S. (1992). Learning to teach through collaborative conversation: A feminine approach. American Educational Research Journal, 29(2), 373-404.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2024). English learners in public schools. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved May 27, 2026, from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cgf

Richardson, V. (1994). Conducting research on practices. Educational Researcher, 23(5), 5-10.

Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner. Basic Books.

Shor, I. (1993). Education is politics. In P. McLaren & P. Leonard,  (Eds.), Paulo Freire: A Cultural Encounter. Routledge.

Waggoner, D. (1994). Language minority school-age population now totals 9.9 million. NABE News, 18(1).

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